THEME-4 THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS (LESSON NOTES)

THEME-4

THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

(C.600 BCE-600 CE)

(LESSON NOTES)

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v INTRODUCTION

Ø As you know that in Indian subcontinent during 600 BC to 600 CE many thinkers and ideology emerged. It led to development in the many religious belief as Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism etc. This chapter discusses the major religious developments in early India focusing on Buddhism. We will also see how their ideas were compiled as oral and written texts as well as expressed in architecture and sculpture. The best preserved monument of the time was the stupa at Sanchi which is a major focus in this chapter.

v CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN WORLD HISTORY

Ø The mid-first millennium BCE (500 BCE)  is often regarded as a turning point in world history specially in religious and cultural development.

Ø During these period many thinkers such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in china, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India emerged. 

Ø They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and relationship between the humans and cosmic order.

Ø  In India this was also the time when cities and kingdoms were developing and social and economic life was changing in a variety of ways in Ganga valley.

Ø These thinkers of India attempted to understand these developments as well.

v THE SACRIFICIAL TRADITION

Ø We get the information about many religious beliefs and practices from the earlier book Rigveda.

Ø The Rig Veda was compiled between c.1500 and 100 BCE and consists of hymns in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indra and Soma.

Ø These hymns were chanted when the sacrifices were performed and people prayed for cattle, sons, good health, long life and other things.

Ø The Sacrifices earlier were performed collectively. Later (c.100BCE-500 BCE onwards) some were performed by the heads of households for well being of the domestic unit.

Ø More elaborate sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Asvamedha were performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the rituals.

v NEW QUESTIONS IN THE EARLY PERIOD

Ø During this time many thinker started to raise many question which were compiled in the earlier book Upanishad.

Ø They were curious about the meaning of life, the possibilities of life after death and rebirth.

Ø People outside the Vedic tradition asked whether there was even a single ultimate reality.

Ø People also began speculating on the significance of the sacrificial tradition.

v DEBATES AND DISCUSSIONS

Ø As you know that many thinks raise questions on the sacrificial traditions, Vedas, about ultimate reality. So live debates and discussion took place among the various thinkers.

Ø These discussion were took place in Kutagarashala- means hut with a pointed roof or in groves where travelling mendicants halted.

Ø In these Kutagarashala philosophers tried to convince one another ,If anyone succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of the latter also became his disciples. In that time nearly 64 sect were there.

Ø  Many thinkers like Mahavira and Buddha questioned the authority of the Vedas. They emphasized on individual agency.

Ø They suggested men and women could strive to attain liberation from trials and tribulations of worldly existence. While Brahmanical text believed that individual’s existence was determined by his or her birth in specific caste or gender.

v THE MESSAGE OF MAHAVIRA (JAIN PHILOSOPHY)

Ø Jainism is an ancient religion. The Rishimbhdev was the first thirthankara. The thirthankara are teachers who guide men and women across the river of existence.

Ø Vardhamana Mahavira was 24 thirthankaras. The main teachings of Mahavira are:

§  The entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water have life.

§  No-injury (Ahimsa) to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects.

§  The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.

§  Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.

§  This can be attained only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation.

§  Jaina monks and nuns must take five vows.

·       To abstain from killing.

·        To abstain from stealing

·       To abstain from lying

·        To observe celibacy

·       To abstain from possessing property.

v THE SPREAD OF JAINISM

Ø Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India.The teachings of Mahavira were recorded by his desciples.

Ø Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil and preserved in libraries attached to temples.

Ø Many stone sculptures connected with the Jain traditions have been recovered from several sites.

v  THE LIFE OF BUDDHA

Ø Buddha was one of the most influential teachers of his time. His message spread across the subcontinent and beyond-through central Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and through SriLanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.

Ø We come to know about Buddha from the Buddhist text and the hagiographies which were compelled and written by their followers

Ø According to the traditions Buddha was named Siddhartha at birth and was the son of the chief of Sakya clan. He led a sheltered upbringing in the palace detached from the harsh realities of life.

Ø One day he undertook a journey into a city which was a turning point in his life. He was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse.

Ø  It was at the moment that he realized that decay of human body was inevitable.

Ø  He saw a mendicant who had come to terms with old age and disease and death and found peace.

Ø  Soon after, Siddhartha left the palace in search of truth. He explored many paths including bodily mortification.

Ø He abandoned the extreme path and meditated for several days and finally attained enlightenment and came to be known as Buddha or the enlightened one. For the rest of his life he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.

v MAIN TEACHINGS OF BUDDHISM

Ø Teachings of Buddha have been taken from Sutta Pitaka in the form of stories. Few stories describe his miraculous powers and others suggest that Buddha tried to convince people through reasons and persuasion rather through displays of supernatural power. His main teaching were as follows-

§  The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing.

§  It is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.

§  Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.

§  It is by following the middle path between severe penance and self- indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.

§  In the early forms of Buddhism whether or not God existed was irrelevant.

§  Buddha regarded the social world as a creation of humans rather than divine origin and thus advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.

§  The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation

§  Buddhism emphasizes nibana literally the extinguishing of the ego and desires and thus ends the suffering of those who renounced the world.

§  Buddha’s last words to his followers were:”Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation”

v THE BUDDHIST SANGHA

Ø The followers of Buddha held themselves in an organisation that was known as Sangha.  It included all the disciples who left their home and become teachers of dhamma.

Ø The followers of Buddha came from many social groups as kings, wealthy men and gahapatis, workers, slaves and crafts people etc. But all were regarded equal after join sangha

Ø They lead a very simple life possessing only the essential things for survival, such as a bowl to receive food once a day from the common people. They lived on alms, so they were known as Monk or bhikkus.

Ø Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also admitted on the request of Buddha’s dearest disciples, Anand. Mahaprajapati Gotami (Buddha’s foster mother) was the first woman to be included in sangha known as Nun or bhikkuni.

Ø After that many women join sangha and became teachers of dhamma theris, or respected women who had attained liberation.

Ø All Bhikkus and bhikkuni have to follow the rules of Sangha which were mention in the book Vinaypitaka.

Ø In sanghas consensus were arrived based on discussions. If discussions failed to bring about harmony then decisions were taken by a vote on that subject.

v WHY BUDDHISM BECOME POPULAR

Ø Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and after his death.

Ø People were dissatisfied with the prevailing religions and were confused by the social changes that were occurring.

Ø Buddhism emphasized on the importance of conduct and values rather than claims of superiority based on birth.

Ø The emphasis was laid on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) especially for those who were young and weaker than oneself. These were ideas that drew men and women to Buddhism.

v CHAITYAS

Ø The Certain places with special trees or unique rocks, or sites of awe inspiring natural beauty with small shrine attached were regarded as sacred sites which were known as Chaityas. It may also have been derived from the word chita, meaning a funeral pyre.

Ø Buddhist literature describes places connected with the life of Buddha. These places are

§  Lumbini- where he was born

§  Bodh Gaya -where he attained enlightenment

§  Saranath -where he gave his first sermon

§  Kushinagara-. Where he attained nibbana

v STUPA:

Ø The sacred place or mounds where relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or objects used by him were buried were known as stupas.

Ø According to the text Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.

Ø The stupas at Barhut, Sanchi and Saranath were built by the second century BCE.

v WHO BUILT THE STUPAS

Ø Through the inscriptions we come to know that to built the stupas the donations was given by the kings like Satvahanas , Mauryas etc.

Ø Some donations was given by the guilds(Association of traders) like the gateway of sanchi staupa was given by ivory workers.

Ø We also find that donation was also given by many ordinary men and women bhikkus and bhikkunis for building and decorating these monuments.

v STRUCTURE OF STUPA

Ø Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap. The structure of stupa originated as a simple circular mound of earth called anda.

Ø Later on stupas developed into different structure as circular, square, etc.

Ø Above the anda a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods known as the harmika,

Ø Arising from the harmika was the mast called the yashti surrounded by a chhatri or an umbrella.

Ø Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.

v THE EARLY STUPAS

Ø The early stupas were built at Sanchi and Burhat

Ø They were plain except for the stone railings, which resembled a bamboo or wooden fence and the gateways, which were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points.

Ø Later on the stupas were elaborately carved with niches and sculptures like stupas at Amravati and Shah-ji-Dheri in Peshawar.

v THE FATE OF AMRAVATI

Ø The Mahachaitya at Amaravati is now just an insignificant little mound, totally lost of its former glory. The following factors were responsible for the present fate of Amaravati.

§  In 1796, a local raja stumbled upon the ruins of the stupas at Amravati using its stone to build a temple.

§  In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), visited Amravati and collected several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras.

§  Colonel Colin Mackenzie also visited the site but his reports were not published.

§  By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amravati had begun to be taken to different places: to the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta, to the India Office in Madras and some even to London.

§  Many of these sculptures were seen adorning the garden of British administrators.

v VIEW OF H.H. COLE, ON THE PRESERVATION OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS

Ø Though in 1850s it come to know that Amaravati was one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist stupas ever built. But the authorities could not stop the .

Ø An archeologist H H Cole wrote: “It seems to me a suicidal and indefensible policy to allow the country to be looted of original works of ancient art.”

Ø He believed that museums should have plaster-cast facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the originals should remain where they had been found.

Ø Unfortunately, Cole did not succeed in convincing the authorities about Amaravati, although his plea for in situ (in the original place) preservation was adopted in the case of Sanchi.

v THE FATE OF SANCHI STUPA

Ø Sanchi stupa is the best preserved monuments of ancient time. It is the most important Buddhist centre which helped to understand of early Buddhism.

Sanchi stupa

Ø Sanchi stupa is found in good condition even today but Amaravati not because of these reasons-

§  Amaravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of the finds and realized but Sanchi was discovered later on.

§  An plea of archeologist H H Cole for in situ (in the original place) preservation was adopted in Sanchi but not adopted in Amarvati.

§  Sanchi Stupa also had good luck in escaping the eyes of railway contractors, builders, and those looking for finds to carry away to the museums of Europe but Amravati did not have.

§  The authorities did not take any step to preserve the Amaravati stupa but the rulers have taken many steps to preserve the monument of sanchi.

v ROLE OF THE BEGUMS OF BHOPAL IN PRESERVING THE STUPA AT SANCHI

Ø Sanchi stupa was discovered in 1818. At that time mound and three gates were in good condition only fourth was lying on the spot.

Ø In the 19th century, Europeans, first the French and later the English were interested to take away the eastern gateway of the stupa to Paris and London museums.

Ø  Shajehan Begum of Bhopal took a wise decision to make plaster cast copies to please Europeans. This resulted in the original remain at the state.

Ø The rulers of Bhopal, Shajehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site.

Ø The rules also built Museum, guesthouse and funded  the publication of the volumes of John Marshall

Ø Today it stands testimony to the successful restoration of a key archaeological site by the Archaeological Survey of India.

v TEXTUAL EVIDENCE OF SCULPTURES

Ø The sculptures were transported to Europe because these were very very beautiful. Historians find out the many textual evidences of these sculptures.

Ø The sculptures at Sanchi are scrolls of stories which depict scenes from Jatakas.

Ø There were stories of Vessantara Jataka where the prince gives up everything to the Brahmana and goes to live in forest with his wife and children.

Ø  In the same way historian did not find the sculptures of Buddha in early time. Instead of that they found many symbols. They found the meaning of these symbols through textual records.

§  An empty seat represents meditation of the Buddha

§  Stupa represented the mahaparinibbana.

§  Wheel stood for the first sermon delivered by Buddha at Saranath.

§  Tree symbolizes an event in the life of the Buddha, where he got enlightment.

Ø Some other sculptures found at Sanchi were not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. These included in popular tradition as-

§  These include beautiful women known as shalabhanjika swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree.

§  According to popular belief, the mere touching of the tree by her would make the tree to flower and bear fruit.

§  Many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.

§  Many animals were also carved to create lively scenes to attract viewers. For example elephant was carved which signified strength and wisdom.

§  Another figure found at Sanchi stupa is that of Maya the mother of Buddha or popular goddess Gajalakshmi.

§  The motif of a serpent was found at Sanchi.James Fergusson, a modern art historian considered Sanchi as the centre of tree and serpent worship.

v THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

Ø By the first century CE, there were changes in Buddhist ideas and practices. This new way of thinking was called Mahayana-literally; the “greater vehicle” as older Buddhism consider as Hinayanaor Theravada Or lesser vehicle. Many changes were occurred in Mahayana Buddhism

§  Early Buddhist teachings(Hinayana) had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana.

§  Buddha was regarded as a human being .The idea of Buddha as a saviour emerged.

§  It was believed that he is the one who could ensure salvation.

§  Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings that could help others to attain nibbana.

§  The worship of the images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important part of this tradition.

§  The followers of Mahayana Buddhism described the older tradition as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle”.

v GROWTH OF PURANIC HINDUISM

In Hinduism in this time idol worship developed. This idol worship creat a bond of love and devotion between devotee and the God which was known as Bhakati.There were two important traditions that developed within puranic Hinduism.

Ø Vaishnavism is a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity. In the case of Vaishnavism; cults were developed around the various avatars or incarnations of Lord Vishnu. According to Vaishnavism there are ten avatars of Vishnu.

§   Avatars were forms that the deity was believed to have assumed in order to save the world whenever the world was threatened by evil forces.

§  Different avatars as Ram, Krishana, Varaha. Meen, Vamana etc.were popular in different parts of the country.

Ø 2. Shaivism is a tradition within which Shiva was regarded as the chief god.

§  Shiva was symbolized by the linga, although he was occasionally represented in the form of human figure too.

§  Some of these deities were represented in sculptures by different symbols.

§  To understand the meaning of these sculptures historians have to be familiar with the Puranas.

v PURANAS

Ø Puranas contained stories about gods and goddesses. They were written in simple Sanskrit by brahamans nearly 500 CE.

Ø Puranas can be read by all men including women and shudras who were not allowed to read Vedas.

Ø  Puranas evolved through interaction amongst people-priests, merchants, and ordinary men and women who travelled from place to place sharing ideas and beliefs.

Ø For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in the Mathura region. After that, his worship spread to other parts of the country as well.

v GROWTH OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Ø When the stupas at sites such as Sanchi were taking their present form, at the same time the first temples to house images of gods and goddesses were also being built.

Ø The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image.

Ø Gradually, a tall structure, known as sikhara, was built over the central shrine.

Ø Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture.

Ø  Assembly halls (Mandapa), huge walls, gateways and arrangements for supplying water made the later temples far more elaborate.

Ø One of the unique features of early temples was that some of these were hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves.

Ø For example Barabar cave (Bihar) was built for Ajavika sect by Ashoka in third century BCE. An entire temple from a cave is that of Kailasnatha temple at Ellora (Maharashtra) also built in 8^th century.

v PROBLEMS FACED BY THE EUROPEAN SCHOLARS WHILE STUDYING THE SCULPTURES.

Ø The Europeans scholars were not familiar with the local traditions and beliefs.

Ø Many of these sculptures were destroyed and lost over the centuries.

Ø It is not always that the historian understood the same as the mason, artist who built these around 2000 years ago.

Ø European scholars horrified by the images of half human and half animals. They considered the Indian sculptures inferior to that of European sculptures from Greece with which they were familiar. This was because they compared the Indian sculpture to the images of Greece with which they were familiar.

Ø The art historians used textual traditions to understand the meaning of sculptures. While this is a better strategy than comparing the images found in India with that of Greece but it was not always easy to use. For example, to identify the sculpture along a huge rock in Mahabalipuram, art historians have to search through the Puranas.

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